Student Motivation And Academic Performance

Student Motivation And Academic Performance The motivation of students is one of the important issues in higher education, particularly owing to importance of academic performance in their professional life and also it focused on identifying the factors that will help educational thinkers to know students attitudes towards learning, what hinders and what facilitates learning in the process of learning. This will assist education community to predict student academic performance and identifying the students before their grades begin to fall (Kamauru, 2000). Lumsden (1994) has investigated which passion to learn seems to shrink as children grow. Learning sometimes becomes compulsion than happiness, thats why large number of students leaves education before graduation. Due to unpleasant attitude of students towards education very few are actually mentally present in the classroom. Student motivation is the element that leads students attitude towards learning process. Number of studies has been conducted to probe the role of student motivation toward academic performance and different definitions of students motivation have been used by various researches. Student motivation is often separated into two types: Intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation. Intrinsic motivation: A student is intrinsically motivated when he/she is motivated from surrounded by: Intrinsically motivated students enthusiastically engage themselves in learning out of peculiarity, attention, happiness or in order to achieve their own scholarly and personal aims. Therefore students with intrinsic motivation are more enthusiastic, self driven, challenging and feel pleasure in their studies and students with extrinsic motivation try to drag themselves with academic coursework, feel compelled to learn, and always put minimum efforts to attain maximum appreciations. Intrinsically motivated, students tend to use strategies that require more effort and that allow them to process information more strongly. In intrinsic and extrinsic motivation we have found the following sources of motivation which has also been confirmed by the students during data collection. And also each of these items has defined in following table which has been used in design a questionnaire for intrinsic and extrinsic factors. At this time, I am going to talk about research methodology: 2. Research Methodology: 2.1 Sample The sample involved of 342 university students of dissimilar programs in various universities of Islamabad and Lahore, Pakistan. The students were asked about how motivated they are about their university experience and what really motivated them to study. The questionnaire was distributed among both female and male students. It involved 82% male and 18% female students in the survey with an average age of 20 years. The following technical card contains the concise information regarding research methodology: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Purpose of study Exploration à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Types of investigation Correlations à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Extent of researchers interference Minimal à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Study setting Non-contrived à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Measurement Scaling à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Unit of examination Individuals à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Sampling design Simple random sampling à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Sample size n = 250 à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Time horizon one shot à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Data collection method Questionnaire à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Data analysis of Variance The above given self descriptive table describes different parts of research methodology in brief. For statistical purpose analysis of variance has been conducted using SPSS 17 version. 2.2 Instrumentation and Measurement: The above mentioned self-explanatory table contains the key of the items mentioned in the survey questionnaire. This shows that each source in given due consideration in the survey and items were mixed in the survey regarding the source of student motivation. 2.3 Procedure: The questionnaires were distributed randomly among the students of different programs of different semesters and their responses were collected. Data was analyzed using SPSS for Windows (version 17.0) for precise analysis and results. Analysis included regression analysis, and analysis of variance (ANOVA). 3. Result: The following report begins with the results of the respondents information on segments like languages and Gender. This study, conducted on the student motivation and its Impact on student performance, shown that 82.4% respondents are male while 17.6% female, who participated in this study. Female segment of the sample is reasonably insignificant in the study. This study reveals percentages of languages: of these, 34.5% respondents belong to Punjabi language, 8.6% respondents belong to Sindhi language, 10.8% respondents belong to Pashto language, 6.5% respondents belong to Saraiki language, 33.5% respondents belong to Urdu language, 0.7% respondents belong to Hindco language and 5.4% respondents belong to Baluchi language. Different languages are spoken in various parts of the country. However, in one university students come from different parts of the country and speak different languages. Four major provincial languages and three other languages, commonly spoken in some of the pro vinces, were also included in the study. Languages reflect cultural values of their own provinces. Now we have a clear picture of the respondents answers regarding student motivation and student performance. 4. Discussion: Rejection of alternative options, career and qualifications and social pressure instil the academic performance. In the same way, intrinsic motivation achieved through respect of altruism, and self-exploration. This study investigates student motivation and its impact on student academic performance. Student performance will increase between 23 percent and 34 percent due to extrinsic and intrinsic motivation. T-value of both tables shows relevant Importance of elements of extrinsic and intrinsic motivation for academic performance. On the whole, model is Significant. This study reveals R-square is 80 percent which show strong relationship of students motivation with their Performance. Academics performance will increase 34 percent due to extrinsic motivation where as academics Performance will increase 23 percent due to intrinsic motivation. Every student has diversified experience of knowledge, abilities, talents and aspirations and come from different Social, regional and political backgrounds that may affect their motivation to learn. Some student having great quantity of skill due to best schooling and other are vice versa. However, student motivation is a prerequisite of academic performance (Masitsa, 2008). Helpful learning in the classroom depends on the teachers capability that creates interest related to subject matter. Student performance depends upon the forces which are affecting during the studies (Erickson, 1978). There is no paranormal formula for accessing accurate level of students Motivation other then extrinsic motivation and intrinsic motivation questionnaire. 5. Conclusion and Recommendations: The study examined the influence of student motivation on academic performance. The study found positive and mutually causal relationship between students motivation and students academic performance. This relationship is mutual, meaning students who are more motivated do better and student who perform better become more motivated. In this study, R-square is 80 percent; this shows very strong relationship of students motivation with academics performance. T-value also shows relevant significance of students motivation toward the student academics performance. Extrinsic and intrinsic motivations increase their academic performance between ranges of 23 percent and 34 percent. When we checked on individual element of extrinsic motivation and intrinsic motivation, we found that Academics performance will increase 17 percent due to rejection alternative option. Academics performance will enhance 9 percent due to occupation qualification. Academics performance will put in to 7 percent because of social pleasure. Academics performance will increase 4 percent due to common pressure. Academics performance will increase 10 percent due to self exploration. Academics performance will increase 12 percent due to altruism. Blank (1997); Dev (1997); Kushman (2000) and Woods (1995) also associated high motivation and commitment in learning as consisted link to reduce dropout rates and increase levels of student performance. From these findings we conclude that students who are intrinsically motivated perform much better academically than students who are extrinsically motivated. Extrinsically motivated students might do a good job or perform well to achieve a certain reward, but it does not keep them motivated for long-term and overall performance does not change or is consistent. They might carry out very well in one semester or quiz to achieve a certain reward or goal and then next semester might show poor performance because the reward did not exist anymore. Their performance does not remain constant as a result. Students who are intrinsically motivated take up tasks or perform well academically for their own interest and for their own learning. These kinds of students are truly interested in learning and in achieving high goals. This shows in their overall consistent performance. From these results and Analysis, this study concludes that academic performance is positively influenced by intrinsic motivation and negatively affected by extrinsic motivation. Additional research is required to address the question that How students intrinsic motivation can be increased? Critique In regard to research methodology: At the first I guess its better to describe the motivation which it didnt indicate clearly and also designate different type of performance in this case academic learning and learn how to assess the motivation while it didnt indicate in original paper base of literature review: Motivation: It is incentive, enthusiasm, or interest that causes a specific action or certain behaviour. There are two main kinds of motivation: intrinsic and extrinsic. Intrinsic motivation is internal. It occurs when people are compelled to do something out of enjoyment, significance, or desire. Extrinsic motivation occurs when external factors compel the person to do something. A common place that we see the need to apply motivation is in the work place. In the work force, we can see motivation play a key role in leadership and management success. A person unable to grasp motivation and apply it will not become or stay a leader. It is crucial that anyone seeking to lead or motivate understand How let to Hierarchy of Work Motivators. What all process theories have in common is an emphasis on the cognitive processes in determining his or her level of motivation. Equity theory assumes that one important cognitive process involves people looking around and observing what effort other people are putting into their work and what rewards follow them. This social comparison process is driven by our concern for justice and equity. Research by Adams (1965) and others confirms equity theory as one of the most useful frameworks for understanding work motivation. The motivational force of a job can so be calculated if the expectancy, instrumentality and are known. The individuals abilities, characters, role perceptions and opportunities reduce the motivational force. In this project just focus is on motivation and wanted to know about the relationship between academic performance and motivation and just talk about Extrinsic and Intrinsic factor while the other mediator and moderator factor maybe totally devastate the relationship between the even those student although have a intrinsic motivation as in this paper in result part you see as a significant factor but due to such a factor it cant go well and dont change the performance as it was expected. I just want to review some of these articles about the other factors that can be helpful. In cognitive-motivational process model (Vollmeyer, R. Rheinberg, F. (1998). Motivationally Einflu ¨sse auf Erwerb and Anwendung von Wissen in einem computersimulierten System. [Motivational influences on the acquisition and application of knowledge in a simulated system.] Zeitschrift fu ¨r Pa ¨dagogische Psychologie, 12, 11-23.) Motivational factors imagine that have an effect on performance via mediators. Such a potential mediator is persistence. Also in this paper the researcher did research on fifty-one students learnt a complex dynamic system. They measured their initial motivation (mastery confidence, incompetence fear, interest and challenge), then a set of mediating variables during learning. Performance measures were knowledge acquisition and knowledge application. In this paper it was shown a path-analysis showed that initial motivation influenced persistence and it have direct effect on performance and should take in consideration that sometimes highly persistent learners did not have higher mean final performance, despite acquiring more knowledge over trials. So performance is one of the possible mediator that in (Regina Vollmeyer *, Falko Rheinberg (2000) this paper it has discussed. Also in another study we can see that (Bandura, 1991) combines motivation and cognition into a cognitive-motivational perspective. He defined motivation as a multidimensional phenomenon indexed in terms of selection of pursuits from competing alternatives, intensity of effort, and persistence of exertion (p. 158). For learning this means that motivation not only affects what people learn, but also the intensity and the duration of the learning activities. So as you can see in this study although motivation has considered as a multidimensional phenomenon, but the indexes is not according to this paper. In another study, (Rheinberg, 1997, p. 14) defined motivation as something that provides an impetus towards a goal for all current processes. In doing so, motivation influences the way people learn. Vollmeyer and Rheinberg (1998) proposed a cognitive-motivational process model. The interaction between motivation and cognition is described in more detail by Schiefele and Rheinberg (1997). They argued that motivation can affect three aspects of learning: (1) Persistence and frequency of learning activities. (2) Mode of performed learning activities. (3) Motivational and functional states of the learner during learning. These three aspects define the framework, within which we looked for variables that may mediate the effect initial motivation has on performance. Also different type of learning is one of the issues that didnt indicate in the main paper but in Schiefele and Rheinberg (1997) has completely indicated. In confirming the relationship between motivation and performance but in different type in work place we can see :The motivational model holds that more opportunities to participate in decision making provide subordinates with greater intrinsic rewards from work (Conger Kanungo, 1988; Thomas Velthouse, 1990) and higher levels of psychological empowerment (Spreitzer, 1995), which may result in improved work performance. In addition to, the other mediator factor between motivation and performance as a result of a meta-analysis conducted by Eby, Freeman, Rush, and Lance (1999) revealed that intrinsic motivation mediates the link between the participative management behaviour of supervisors and the organizational commitment of employees and their work performance. (XU HUANG1, ET al.2010) Furthermore there is some other papers that confirm the some other factors for increasing the motivation For instance Lumsden, (1994) analyzed students involvement towards education and sources of their motivation. Marshal (1987) viewed students motivation as a force beneficial to the learner. Ames (1990) stated that motivation to learning is dependent on long-term, quality attachment in learning and pledge to the process of learning. Most motivation philosopher believes that motivation is involved in the performance of all learned responses and leaned behaviour will not occur unless it is energized.Bomia et al. (1997) has suggested student motivation as student keenness, need, desire and obligation to participate and be booming in the learning process. Some other Critical Theory in Motivation and performance: Effect of content theories of motivation: There are some other theories in motivation and academic performance which is more related to organizational behaviour such as Maslow and ERG theory that in this part we want to elaborate more in terms of different needs of employee to get satisfy and increase their academic performance. Seeing that we can see in order to motivate student in case of maximize their academic performance to attain higher grading we need to meet their basic needs at first due to Maslow and Alderfer ERG theories which belong to content theories of motivation as it is illustrated above. Pygmalion effect on motivation and performance: It is worth mentioning that student performance increases only if we can motivate them. Also another factor should be highlighted in this regard and that is theory of fulfilling forecast. This theory talks about Pygmalion effect. The Pygmalion consequence enables student to excel in response to the parent and their lecturers message that they are capable of success and expected to succeed. The Pygmalion effect can also undermine student performance when the subtle communication from the manager tells them the converse. Supposing if a student is inexpert, he leaves scars on the careers, cuts deeply into their self-esteem and distorts their image of himself/herself as human being. But if he/she is expert and has high expectations of his/her subordinates, their self-assurance will grow, their capabilities will develop and their efficiency will be high. If the lecturer actually believes that every student has the ability to make a positive contribution at his/her studies, the telegraphing of that message, either consciously or automatically, will positively have an effect on academic performance. In regard to discussion part: While in the discussion part all the alternative except the intrinsic factors reject we review the literature about Motivational factors and academic learning: When a learner approaches a learning task, the literature suggests that several motivational factors are relevant and can be measured: (Regina Vollmeyer *, Falko Rheinberg, 2000). 1. Learners can vary in their certainty that they will succeed in understanding the task. This factor we will call mastery confidence (similar concepts have been proposed: e.g., subjective probability of success and self-efficacy (Bandura, 1977). 2. Learners can differ in their anxiety about failing in the task. This factor we will call incompetence fear (a similar concept is Atkinsons fear of failure, however, for him this concept is measured as a trait whereas we assess a persons actual state); (Regina Vollmeyer *, Falko Rheinberg, 2000). 3. Learners may vary in the degree to which they perceive this task as a challenge. Perceiving the task as a challenge requires a personal achievement standard for this task against which to test task performance. 4. The task may or may not evoke the learners interest. All these motivational factors are said to affect learning; however, it has not been clearly shown how. In accordance with our cognitive-motivational process model (Vollmeyer Rheinberg, 1998), we investigated the assumption that these four motivational factors influence learning via the following three mediators: The motivational state during learning, The systematicity of learners strategies The number of learning rounds the learners deliberately chooses to spend improving their knowledge (persistence). (Regina Vollmeyer *, Falko Rheinberg, 2000). In regard to conclusion and recommendation SUMMERY: The aim of this assignment was to review a peer reviewed journal article that is research based, and is representative of one of the research methodologies we discussed in class (distribute the questionnaire for assessing the just two concept motivation and academic performance. The format of the article has the appearance of a dissertation because it has many of the same components. It starts with an abstract that discusses the main points of the research and the results. After reading the article, I found that the abstract failed to mention the other reasons that affect the performance except motivation of student that the research was based on. The research methodology used in this study was surveys analyzed in a quantitative design. More particularly, only one survey instruments was introduced in the article, and only it was used. It was a questionnaire which was designed and developed by Neil (2004) measure students motivation and it was called The University Student Motivation and Satisfaction Questionnaire version 2 (TUSMSQ2).It was an instrument contains 30-items. The questions measure both Intrinsic and Extrinsic motivation of students and one the problem is that variable which was analysed in this paper just focus on internal and external feature of motivation.

Image And Impression Management

Image And Impression Management This sections aims to uncover and analyze past researches that had been done by other researchers on related topics of image and impression management. This chapter, will provide the theoretical foundation for this research. First, the historical background of impression management will be discussed. Second, the definition and scope of impression management will be examined. Review should contain critical evaluation and discussion of other related research. Image management A growing body of research indicates that we engage in image management in various social situations. Most research has focused on image management in face-to-face situations, particularly as it pertains to career success and performance appraisal. Previous studies have focused on how personality traits and certain situational factors affect image management (Boline Turley, 2002, p. 141). Image management can be defined as: a process by which individuals present information about themselves to appear as they wish others to see them (Kacmar et al., 2007, p. 16). Erving Goffman, who studied human interaction, first introduced the idea of impression management. Goffman described the social world as deceptive. In The Presentation of Self and Everyday Life (1959), Goffman describes human social interaction as a theatrical performance, meaning that people act as performers to give off certain impressions in certain social situations (Manning, 2009 p. 8). Therefore, we intentionally mislead people in efforts to give off a certain impression that we feel will benefit us within a specific social situation. Goffman uses the term fabrication to describe the way an individual misleads others (Manning, 2009, p. 9). Through fabrications, we frame ourselves to be who we want to be. Image management is also defined as the process by which people attempt to influence the images that others have of them (Rosenfeld, Giacalone Riordan, 1995). Regardless of the specific context in which it is used, the general goal of image management is to create a particular impression in others minds (Leary Kowalski, 1990; Rosenfeld et al., 1995). According to several theorists (Schlenker, 1980; McFarland, 2005) image management can be both conscious and unconscious. As Leary and Kowalski (1990) acknowledge as well, at one extreme people are unaware of others reactions to them, while on the other extreme people are conscious about the aspects of themselves that others can observe, such as their appearance and behaviour. Since image management behaviour can be learned, habitually and unconsciously, humans engage in impression management behaviour without considering what they are actually doing. With reference to Jones and Pittman (1982), people should be cautious in using image management tactics since one carries the risk that it will be perceived negatively; for every desired image, there is a corresponding undesired image at risk. For instance, an individual using self-promotion would like to be seen as competent, though he risks to be perceived as arrogant instead. In addition, image management research has mostly concentrate on purposive behaviour like verbal, non-verbal, and artificial behaviours that influence the images that other people have of the person. (Schneider, 1981). However, people often exercise image management behaviour without considering their own behaviour. In such instances, image management tactics become over learned habits. As Schlenker (1980) concludes, a great deal of image management behaviour appears to be non-purposive since it occurs automatically without conscious thought or control. Regarding purposive behaviours, Jones and Pittman (1980) have identified ingratiation, self-promotion, intimidation, exemplification, and supplication as image management. In todays world it is very important to understand who is playing which role, how one should act, and why other people are doing what they are doing. We project our image in very different manners: what we do, how we do it, what we say, how we say it, the arrangement of our offices, and our physical appearance, such as clothes and make-up as well as facial expressions. All these behaviors in some way help us define who we are (Rosenfeld et al., 1995, p.4). They form an identity and express what we want and expect from other people around us. These social identities constitute how individuals are defined and regarded in social interaction (Schlenker, 1980, p.69). The general definition used by scholars is that image management is the process through which individuals attempt to influence the impressions other people form of them (Gardner, 1992). Individuals manage their impressions when they wish to present a favorable image of themselves to others (Jones Pittman, 1982). Ways in which individuals manage their impressions can vary from verbal statements to their physical appearance or by using non-verbal gestures and expressions. Some theorists like Schlenker (1980) and Schneider (1981) make a distinction between the terms image management and self-presentation, even though most literature uses these terms interchangeably. Schlenker (1980) classifies image management as the attempt to control images that are projected in real or imagined social interactions while self-presentation is applied to situations in which the created impression is self-relevant (Schlenker, 1980, p.6). Schneider (1981) claims that self-presentation can be seen as a close cousin of image management, but still is dissimilar: Image can be managed by means other than self-presentation, and presentations may be used for goals other than image management (Schneider, 1981, p.25). Schneider (1981) mentions that image of an individual can also be controlled by a third party. Several theorists propose that self-presentation not only attempts to influence the images that others form, but also has an influence on the impression the person has about himself (Greenwald Breckler, 1985; Hogan, Jones Cheek, 1985; Schlenker, 1985). This in fact can be regarded as self-presentation to the self (Leary et al., 1990), as people are motivated to preserve particular beliefs about themselves (Greenwald Breckler, 1985). Overall, image management can be seen as a broader and more encompassing term than self-presentation (Leary et al., 1990). Impression Management Goffmans impression management work has developed and continuous to be a popular research topic addressing studies of identity and social interaction. Many impression management studies use the theory of self-monitoring to measure how anindividual works to achieve a desirable self-image. Self-monitoring can be described as an internal state combining self-observation and self-control (Scher et al., 2007, p. 186). Self-monitoring is an internal process in which a person tries to control the impressions they give off to others as a means of self-presentation (Scher et al., 2007, p. 187). In trying to give off certain impressions of ones self, a person controls their behaviors to ensure that they are socially appropriate. Lennox (1984) describes two sources of information that a person uses to assess how to act: ones personal disposition and situational cues (p. 199). Some people, known as low self-monitors, rely more on their inner states and feelings in assessing the appropriateness o f their behavior while others, known as high self-monitors, tend to respond to their social environments cues when deciding how to behave appropriately (Lennox, 1984, p. 199). High self-monitors adapt their behaviors to specific social situations. They look at the way others are behaving in the immediate social scene for cues on how they should behave. On the contrary, low self-monitors use their internal factors their attitudes, opinions, beliefs, and dispositions as cues on how they should behave in certain situations. Therefore, they are less affected by situational factors than high self-monitors. Their behaviors are more reflective of their personality (Lennox, 1984, p. 199). Studies have shown that high self-monitors are more likely to conform than low self-monitors and show more inconsistency between their behaviors and attitudes (Scher et al., 2007, p. 187). It is thought that high self-monitors are more concerned with what others think of them than low self-monitors, maki ng them more likely to conform in social situations (Sher et al., 2007, p. 190). Studies show that high self-monitors are more concerned with what others think and are more likely than low self-monitors to achieve desired images while avoiding undesired ones (Turnley Bolino, 2001, p. 251). They are skillful in controlling their self-image and often use impression management tactics. Jones and Pittman (1982) came up with a list of impression management tactics (Turnley Bolino, 2001, p. 352). These includes: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Ingratiation using flattery in efforts to get others to view you favorably à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Self Promotion displaying your successes and skills in efforts to appear competent à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Exemplification striving to be seen as dedicated by exerting yourself to the fullest à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Supplication displaying your needs and shortcoming in efforts to appear needy à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Intimidation striving to be seen as threatening or dangerous by intimidating others Turnley and Bolinos study (2001) found that high self-monitors would more frequently achieve the desired image of likeable when using ingratiation, competent when using self promotion and dedicated when using exemplification than low self-monitors (Turnley Bolino, p. 353). A similar study done by Bolino Turnley (2003) found evidence that high self-monitors prefer to use positive impression management tactics (ingratiation, self promotion and exemplification) to negative tactics (supplication and intimidation) (p. 141). This same study also suggests that individuals who engage in positive impression management tactics are seen by others as more favorable than those who use all types of impression management tactics (Bolino Turnley, 2003, p. 141). This study asserts that women are less aggressive in using impression management tactics than men and therefore, are more likely to engage in positive tactics rather than negative ones (Bolino Turnley, 2003, p. 141). Bolino Turnley suggest that this may be because women follow the less aggressive tactics of the female gender role, which discourages aggressive or assertive behavior (Bolino Turnley, 2003, p. 148). Therefore, men are more active and aggressive in managing their impressions while women are mor e likely to do so passively (Bolino Turnley, 2003, p. 148). Siibaks study used the self-discrepancy theory to explain the reasons behind managing ones social media image. This theory asserts that individuals have three self-domains: The Actual Self an individuals representation of the attributes that he or she believes he/she possesses The Ideal Self an individuals representation of the attributes that someone (yourself or another person) wants you to possess The Ought Self and individuals representation of the attributes that someone (yourself or another person) believes you should possess (Higgins, 1987, p. 319) The Ought Self comes into play in impression management. Individuals seek to represent the Ought Self by emphasizing the attributes they believe a person ought to possess in a certain social situation. Many studies have focused on the Cultivation Theory as it pertains to self-image and distorted body image problems. Most of these studies look at television and magazines and their role in making females believe ideal beauty means excessive thinness. This study is more focused on exploring whether image management affects womens perceptions of ideal beauty. A study done on college women using print advertisements found that making social comparisons to ultra-thin models is significantly associated with greater internalization of the thin ideal and decreased satisfaction with ones own appearance (Engeln Maddox, 2005, p. 1114). This study uses a sociocultural model that describes body image problems and disordered eating as a result of the continued exposure to thin images. This prolonged exposure reinforces the Western ideal of thinness being attractive (Engeln-Maddox, 2005, p. 1115). A similar study was done on the effects of fashion magazines on body dissatisfaction and disordered eating among females. This study also connects the medias promotion of the thin ideal to body distortion issues that remain at the center of anorexia and bulimia (Shaw, 1995, p. 15). It compared adolescents and adults and their responses to thin images present in magazines (Shaw, 1995, p. 20). Age, BMI and greater bulimic tendencies were positively correlated with greater responsiveness to images of thin models among adolescents (Shaw, 1995, p. 20). The adults, although still responsive to the thin ideal, were less responsive than adolescents (Shaw, 1995, p. 21). This is thought to be in part because adults, unlike adolescents, are not in a developmental stage in which they are concerned with collecting personal identity information (Shaw, 1995, p. 21). Shaw (2005) uses Social Identity Theory, which states that ones social identity is positively related to the degree of social attractiveness conferred by their membership of a particular social group to describe why females have greater body dissatisfaction after being exposed to ultra-thin magazine models (p. 21). Shaw also explains that our culture provides cues that teach females at an early age that they are judged by their physical beauty (p. 21). Therefore, females work to conform to the ideal images of beauty that our society has spelled out for them. If they are not able to conform to this ideal image of beauty, they may experience body dissatisfaction, which may lead to disordered eating habits. One study looked at the role of the peer environment and its ability to provide a subculture that emphasizes the importance of thinness throughà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ peer pressure to diet and be thin and teasing from peers about weight and shape (Gerner Wilson, 2005, p. 313). Female adolescents believe being thin is connected to a better popularity standing among friends and increases the perception of being dateable (Gerner Wilson, 2005, p. 314). This is linked to disordered dieting, poor self-image evaluations, and bulimia (Gerner Wilson, 2005, pg. 314). This study also suggests girls friendships with males, more than females, are closely tied to how they feel about their bodies, reflecting a sociocultural emphasis on the importance of physical attractiveness for successful relationships with males (Gerner Wilson, 2005, p. 318). 2.2.1 Historical review on Impression management A distinction will be made between before and after the 1980s. The idea that people actively manage their image that others form of them has existed for centuries, but it was in the early 1900s that social philosophers incorporated these ideas into their thinking. It was only during the 1980s that the topic of image management started to become widely accepted as an element of organizational life and communications. 2.2.1 Impression management before the 1980s The concept of image and impression management relates back to prehistoric and primitive people who also were concerned about self-presentation. Cosmetics, clothing, jewelry and other aids to physical attractiveness were universally used to present positive identities to others (Tedeschi, 1981, p.xv). The idea that people project identities to one another and form identities from the reactions of others to them, has existed for a long period of time, yet it has not been until this century that social philosophers have incorporated this interactive process into their thinking (Cooley, 1902; Mead, 1934) 2.2.2 Impression management after the 1980s Prior to the 1980s generally social psychologists regarded impression management as a peripheral concept. It was rarely regarded as a fundamental interpersonal process on its own (Schlenker Weigold, 1992, p.135) . In the second half of the 1980s interest for impression management started to increase and the concept of impression management became more important. In 1989 two books were published by Giacalone and Rosenfeld about impression management in organizations. These two books served as source books for what is nowadays the distinctive field of organizational impression management (Rosenfeld et al., 1995). Impression management in organizations consists of strategic communications designed to establish, maintain, or protect desired identities (Rosenfeld et al., 1995). Since the 1980s impression management has been studied in organizational contexts such as leader-member exchange, job interviews and performance appraisal. The study of impression management in organizations is of great importance (Bozeman Kacmar, 1997, p.9). As popularity among researchers and practitioners grew it also started to be viewed as a mainstream rather than a peripheral concept. It is difficult to understand how impression management could have been overlooked in many theoretical discussions. Incorporating impression management into current research and practice is started to provide a better understanding of how organizational processes were to a large extent affected by individuals concerns over how they were being perceived by others (Rosenfeld et al., 1995). Most social psychological investigations have focused on intentional behaviors that decorate or modify ongoing behavior. Impression management is assumed to become more intentional and focused when people believe that they will gain valued outcomes by encouraging certain impressions in others (Schlenker Weigold, 1992). Since the 80s analysts have applied and studied the concept of impression management to a wide range of social phenomena, such as attitude change, nonverbal behavior, social anxiety and recently also to concepts such as eating behavior, organizational behavior. While in specifics being different, the analyses share in common the idea that people attempt to control information for one or more salient audiences in ways that try to facilitate goal-achievement (Schlenker Weigold, 1992, p.136). The concept of impression, specifically in the field of organizational life, has received much more importance than ever before. Impression management is a commonly occurring part of organizational life and it is seen as essential to effective organizational communication (Rosenfeld et al., 1995). In the next section a look will be taken at the motives people have to engage or use impression management. 2.3 Motives to engage in impression management Being skilled in the process of impression management is becoming more significant for managers and it is especially true in work settings with high pressure and where quick decisions need to be made in a dynamic environment. Individuals who are not aware of this aspect of organizational life run the risk of performing poorly, or even being moved to lower positions in the organization (Gardner, 1992). The statement and explanation given above by Gardner might in some way explain why people would attempt to use impression management at work with their colleagues. Yet in general people wish to be perceived as intelligent, friendly and morally good (Rosenfeld, GiacaloneTedeschi, 1983, p.60). This explanation is given for the question of why people laugh more often at humorous stimuli when others are present than when they are own their own, the answer being to establish an identity of oneself as a friendly person. People engage in impression management for many reasons that are influenced by social, personal and situational factors. Some theorists describe the process as a quick cost-benefit analysis (Schlenker, 1980). At the same time people are assessing the benefits that might be achieved by presenting one image rather then another one, they are also considering the costs of presenting that particular image (Rosenfeld et al.,1995). Some situations in which impression management is less likely to occur were described by Jones and Pittman (1980). Under conditions of high task involvement, where the individual becomes absorbed in the task itself. In another research on the use of impression management in assessment centers it was mentioned that the process of impression management required much of an individuals cognitive resources and so it could interfere with effective performance of the individual (McFarland, Ryan, Kriska, 2003). Other situations mentioned by Jones and Pittman (1980) are purely expressive behaviors such as anger and joy and situations in which the person is most of all concerned with presenting his/her true self, such as therapy sessions (Gardner Martinko, 1988). Next to situational factors also social and personal factors influence the motives of individuals to engage in impression management. Leary and Kowalski (1990) believed that impression management could be used to increase personal well-being in three interrelated goals. First of all by maximizing ones reward-cost ratio in social relations. As mentioned earlier, self-presentation also allows individuals to optimize their benefit-cost ratio when dealing with others (Schlenker, 1980). Being able to form a good impression will increase the probability of a desired outcome, be it a interpersonal one such as friendship or power or be it material such as raise in salary due to being seen as more competent (Leary Kowalski, 1990, p.37). The second goal that Leary and Kowalski (1990) mention is enhancing ones self esteem. People might employ in impression management, to regulate their self-esteem in a two-fold manner. One reason was that reactions that other individuals have will positively (compliments) or negatively (criticism) affect your self-esteem. So individuals will act in a manner to be able to inflate their self-esteem by trying to receive positive feedback (Leary Kowalski, 1990, p.37). A second reason is that the self esteem of individuals is also influenced by the self-evaluation of their performances and the feedback that you as an individuals will expect to receive from others (Leary Kowalski, 1990). The third and final goal proposed by Leary and Kowalski (1990) is facilitating the development of desired identities. According to Cooley (1902) and Mead (1934) our identity is in the end derived from society, and individuals sometimes engage in certain behaviors to indicate the ownership of such identity-relevant characteristics (Leary Kowalski, 1990). People may even engage in impression management activities as protection if they feel there is a threat to their social image. As can be seen above there are several motives for people to engage in impression managing. Aside of situational and social factors there are also some personality traits that will affect the degree of impression management being used. For example the extent to which an individual possess the trait of machiavellianism might have an impact on the degree of impression management being used. In todays world it is defined as one who employs aggressive, manipulative, exploiting and devious moves in order to achie ve personal and organizational objectives (Calhoon, 1969, p. 241). From this definition it seems obvious to conclude that the higher the score for machiavellianism the more likely the individual will engage in impression management to achieve personal objectives. A second and final trait that can be decisive for the degree in which an individual engages in impression management is self-monitoring. Individuals differ in the way they monitor their self-presentation and expressive behavior (Snyder, 1974, p.536). Individuals with high levels of self-monitoring can effectively use this skill to create impressions they want. Furthermore these individuals are also better at purposely communicating and expressing emotion in verbal and non verbal manners (Snyder, 1974). Before reaching the overall conclusion of this chapter it can be said that indeed personality as well as social and situational factors play a clear role and deciding what individual will or will not use impression management in certain situations. 2.4 Conclusion In this chapter an in depth look was taken at the historical background of impression management and it can be said that since the mid 80s the topic has increasingly received attention from social psychologists and the awareness of its importance is also dramatically increasing in organizational life. Furthermore a look was taken at the several definitions of the concept by different researchers. The definition that will be employed throughout this paper will be the process through which individuals attempt to influence the impressions other people form of them. In the final part of this chapter the several factors that might affect the motives of individuals to engage in impression management where studied. It was found that several situational, social and personality factors affect an individuals decision to employ impression management. In the next chapter a look will be taken at the choice of the type of impression management style or tactic that and individuals will choose.

Napoleon :: History, The French Revolution

Napoleon only upholds the ideals of the French Revolution because he wanted to secure and strengthen his own power. During his rise to power, Napoleon adhered to the ideals dutifully. In his speech to his troops, Napoleon said, â€Å"We are waging war as generous enemies, and we wish only to crush the tyrants who enslave [the Italian people]† (Document 1). He tells them to be respectful of other countries, to give them rights they have the right to enjoy. This follows Locke’s enlightenment ideas, that everyone has inherent rights that cannot be taken away. Being an supporter of equal rights, he gained popularity with the French people. Over time, Napoleon used these ideals to increase and solidify his power. Napoleon Crossing the Alps by Jacques Louis David (Document 4) correctly illustrates Napoleon’s France. In this painting, Napoleon, dressed in breeches and a fancy army uniform rides on a horse, holding the reins loosely but firmly, looking majestic. The horse is strong from the apparent muscles in its legs. At a closer look, the horse’s eyes are too wide and wild and its mouth is gaping open. The horse symbolized France as whole at the time period, when everything was chaotic, with beheadings everyday and constant fears of invasion. Napoleon kept France under absolute control but still allowed enough freedoms to the people. France was a republic in name only. During this time period, the French people were ensured equality, as long as they abided by the law, the Napoleonic Code (Document 9), which unified the legal system of France under one set of laws. Meritocracy was instilled and schools were established to educate people, since in Napoleon’s France people acquired jobs based on their skill and not family connections. Food prices were stabilized so that everyone could afford to eat. By establishing a strong centralized authority, Napoleon brought order to France. He began censoring newspapers and had the Secret Police keep tabs on people. Both of these actions were direct violations of the enlightenment and Declaration of the Rights of Man, which stated, people had the right to freedom of speech, press, and religion, and could not be silenced for these views. The hypocrisy of his actions are seen once again, when Napoleon crowns himself Emperor. By doing so, he is saying that his power to rule is derived from god. The Napoleonic Catechism proclaimed, â€Å"[Napoleon had become] anointed of the Lord†¦those lacking in their duty to our emperor†¦resisting the order established by God himself† (Document 11).

Globalization and the Environment Essay -- Environmental Ecology Pollu

Economy is not a separate thing from production, consumption and exchange. Economics pays no attention to goods and services provided by nature, air, water, soil and sunlight that produce everything we need for survival and all the riches we are able to accumulate. What is the cost of globalization to the environment? Does globalization have the same goals for a healthy planet and justice for people? Timothy Taylor writes, â€Å"Moreover, large multinational companies typically do not perceive it to be in their self-interest to seek out locations where they can pollute most heavily.† He goes on to explain that these companies have a design in place with pollution-control that meets the standards of countries with strict environmental laws. He thinks that globalization is helping to improve standards in low-income countries of environment and labor rather than to hinder them. Also, that globalization makes the world a more peaceful place because of the connections between people that are created. â€Å"The 200 largest companies in the world employ less than 1% of the global workforce, but they control more than  ¼ of the world’s wealth,† write Suzuki and Dressel. The larger companies are operating globally without interference and using up the natural resources with cheap labor overseas. Corporations are no longer connected to the local economies but to international laws that have been set up to their advantage. The wealth that once was distributed to the good of public welfare is now being rerouted to the corporations through their focus on policies of government. The current system is allowing corporations to make the rules of global economic activity. According to John Cavanaugh, author of Global Dreams â€Å"Not only are these corpor... ...ebody comes up with a viable solution? The world is becoming smaller and smaller every day and perhaps the History books of the future will look at this time and wonder how we could have been so ignorant as to let the world die. Works Cited: Bright, Christopher, (2001), Biological adversity: the hidden costs of Trade and economic globalization, Harvard International Review, Winter 2001, pp 24-27. Grennes, Thomas, (2003), Creative Destruction and Globalization, Cato Journal, Winter 2003, pp.543-558 Newcomb, W. W. (1961) The Coahuiltecans: South Texas, the Indians of Texas: From Prehistoric to Modern Times, Austin, TX: UT Press, 1961 Suzuki, D., & Dressel, H., (1999), From naked ape to superspecies. Toronto, Canada: Stoddard Publishing Co., Limited Taylor, Timothy (2002), The truth about globalization, Public Interest, Spring 2002, pp. 24-44.

Development of the learning process of students for progress through after school program Essay

The question of development of students in their childhood is extremely vital that has to be tackled carefully, if not various problems will arise not only at the individual level but also at the national level. To improve the condition, the sanction of fund by the government alone is not sufficient to solve the problems but question remains at the top for its use in right direction at the right time in right amount with consideration of grant, method of constructing the children in the limitation of time and space of adults, the capacity of the children for their success, the implementation of art in their education life with the question of implementation of their education in the development of the community with the help of after school program. If the problem is solved tactfully and effectively, the manifold benefit can be had for the development of the students. The proper implementation of the after school program will bring out the goodness in the students to the society in proper manner. The creativity, which is present in every student by birth, will come out to the society to give strength not only to the students themselves but also to the nation. The article ‘Children â€Å"At Risk†: Constructions of Childhood in the 21st Century Community Learning Centers Federal After-School Program’ by Sharon Verner Chappell is not only an informative one but also a fine creation of work of literature. This article may be termed as a vital literature, though it an article, in the contemporary situation due its wide range of data and analysis of the situation of the students of any country. The effectiveness of the article is without the any boundary of the community, language and the nations. The sanction of $4. 5 billion by U. S. government for after school programs through the 21st Century Community Learning Centers (Chappell, S. V. 2006) is an independent variable if we consider the fact about the budget allocation. The amount is decided at the time of budget and at the time of budget preparation other needs are not taken into accounts. Though the actual amount spent will become dependent variable when the number of school and students are taken into consideration. Another example of dependant variable can be seen as the number of good performing students that is directly proportional to increased skill in study and inversely proportional to decreased number of adverse behavior like teen pregnancy. Sanctioning money is very much essential for any project to be completed, considering this assumption the US government has sanctioned the money amount. This may be considered as an important hypothesis. A hypothesis that â€Å"children are active and academically successful (i. e. productive) when they attend a state regulated educational program, whereas those children who do not attend such programs are passive, unproductive, unsuccessful, and by extension, perhaps, not good people† is cited in the article by Chappell (2006). This Operational Research Question is universally acclaimed and it is studied here in the context appropriately. â€Å"The students and the parents both are needed high attention of care and support when they are from high poverty family†. This thought is also implemented in the article. When students are in low-performing school their self-performance is also decreased. In addition to this hypothesis another one like â€Å"when art is introduced in the curriculum, the performance of the students are better many fold from previous†. Another citation by Chappell (2006) from Vadeboncoeur (2005,123), is as ‘notions of time and space can be used â€Å"to map institutional and narrative landscapes of students. â€Å"‘ This is also an important operational research. The definition of term by the article writer is provided in between the sentence by proper explanation in next step in the advancement of the description. After stating some policy, additional information is provided to describe the policy, which act as invisible definition of the term in the article. Some time the definition is given in bracket as in â€Å"reduce the number of children in self-care (â€Å"latchkey children† who take care of themselves)†. The meaning of implemented sentence â€Å"reduce the number of children in self-care† in given in the bracket in later part. Population and sampling procedure is informative and given in between sentence without any tabular form. This keeps the flow of the article readable and enjoyable. One example of this in article is â€Å" Since 2003, 6,800 rural and urban public schools have been served around the country†¦Ã¢â‚¬ . Another sampling in the article is given at proper time and places with proper citation method to avoid the ambiguity due to copyright with gives the article a good ornamental decorating. Data source are very huge and the data are collected from the scholarly and valuable articles all related to the subject matter of the article. The tireless, extensive and enthusiastic efforts are given to collect the data from various books, magazines and the websites. The proper care has been taken to collect the data after exhaustive study of the collected materials to produce the article. The data are collected with proper estimation and measurement and the authenticity cannot be suspected as the whole matter is taken from the scholarly articles, authentic magazines and popular books. The psychological and mental estimation of the children are provided with the article with various hypothesis and theory. The data are not provided in any tabular form but are scattered throughout the articles in the manner of information with full lucrative and informative sentence. In the beginning of the article â€Å"amount of $4. 5 million† is mentioned as the sanctioned amount for 21st Century Community Learning Centers (21st CCLC). Another data is â€Å"6800 rural and public school† but in no any data table. Presentation and interpretation of findings are in very intelligent and economical manner. The various divisions have been done with different sub-heading the article to provide the information in proper and chorological manner. The required data and information can be easily had due to the excellent presentation of the article. Findings have proper interpretation and placed at appropriate place. In this article main theme is the construction of childhood with the help of the ‘after school programs’ to be implemented with the help of various funds allocations by concerned institutions. The methods are described to obtained good results by good students. The need for improvement of economically improvised school along with the economically downtrodden family is emphasized. The need of arts is very much essential for the student to become a good student. Though the article is exhaustive in information and description in the problems mentioned in the titles, the need for further Research cannot be denied. There is a need to study the personal behavior of the students at the time of after school program. Many students may not be interested in such program. So they cannot be forced to do the implemented programs but s/he should be given proper attention to find out the actual need and interest of the students. There is need to conduct the research in the area of students behavior and their interests in the study at the very early age. Strength of the study remains in the area of research. The extensive and exhaustive research is done in proper subject matter. The method of citation is proper and the information put at proper places with the good structure of the paragraph with the flow of the information in one proper direction is always advancing. Weakness of the study is in the method of representation of the data in tabular forms without any comparison method. The compared data would have given better understanding of the situation of the students. The poverty level of the parents of the students and the economically degraded school with opposite situation could have been compared in tabular form for better understanding. The various opinions of the parents and the students could have given better improvement in the study.

Child Development – Unit 1

Beginners Guide for New Parents â€Å"A taste of things to come† Awareness of child development From birth to adulthood children are all developing. They develop at different rates but all follow the same basic pattern. Physical development starts from the head, and works down the body to the arms and finally the legs. Communication develops from crying to recognizable words and then intelligent conversation. Emotionally children are reliant on their primary caregiver until they develop an awareness of themselves and are able to socialize and function independently. These various strands of development are not made in isolation or sequentially. Development is concurrent and holistic, therefore any deficiency in one area can affect the development in other areas. ————————————————- Pattern of child development Physical development | | 1. 1 a| Infant0 – 12 months| A newborn lies curled up in the fetal position, unable to raise head. Movements are instinctive such as reactions to sound or closing eyes in bright light. 3 months can turn head to look at objects. 6 months child begins to hold up head, keeping it steady for increased periods. Learns to grasp and hold objects, then moves them from one hand to the other at will. Next can pull body to a sitting position and stay upright when aided. 9 months is able to sit unaided. Releases toys by dropping. Uses pincer grip to pick up items. Holds feeding bottle. 12 months as the baby gains more body control it can roll and crawl. | | Early years1 – 3 years| The gross motor skills are developed as the child starts to stand with support. This progresses to standing alone for a couple of seconds. Can walk holding one hand for support. Can walk unaided, run and jump as she develops full control of her limbs. Finer motor skills are developed such as the pincer grip to pick up small objects. Is able to hold a spoon to feed themselves. Learns to hold a crayon to scribble and then draw shapes with. Talks well in sentences, clear enough to be understood. | | Childhood4 – 7 years| Learns to eat independently using a knife and fork. Motor skills are developed to the point where a child can walk backwards. They can now walk placing heel to toe and balance themselves on a narrow beam. Manual dexterity now allows them to catch a ball, build structures, and draw shapes. Dress and undress with assistance, then alone. Take turns in play with friends and plays cooperatively. Could be frightened of things like spiders and ghosts. Knows their left from right and how many fingers they have. | | Puberty8 – 12 years| Hormonal changes are responsible for a growth spurt at this time. Gain muscles, but can still appear to lack coordination. Develop large and fine motor skills for use in sports and hobbies. Activity increases and may want to spend more time with peers rather than parents. Noticeable body changes take place, girls develop breasts and boys’ voices change. The growth of underarm and pubic hair is normal at this time. Another indicator of this stage is the development of Acne. Pre teens begin to notice the opposite sex, but prefer to stick with their own gender. | | Adolescence13 – 16 years| Their own identity emerges in musical taste and clothes. Teenagers frequently have close friendships with their peers. Are often concerned about how they look and what others think of them. Physical changes continue as puberty is ongoing or completed. Children become more independent but still seek advice and guidance from parents. Teens are aware of the opposite sex and may be going out with them. Preoccupied by their own sexualityConflict and a lowered opinion of parents emerge as teenager tries to mature. | | Young Adult17 – 19 years| More stable emotionally. Not so concerned about body once puberty ends. Develops clear sexual identity. By the end of this stage both girls and boys will have reached physical maturity. | | Communication and intellectual development | | 1. 1 b| Infant0 – 12 months| A newborn baby cries as their only means of communication. As young babies have no concept of time, to them all needs are urgent, and should be responded to as such. Begins to formulate concepts and is aware of the physical sensation of hunger. Will cry in order to have the need for food met. Develops different cries for a variety of needs, changing, hurting, frightened or lonely. Once they find their voice they will make cooing noises and other sounds. Begins to take an interest in their surroundings, paying attention to toys. Uses voice to communicate feelings, with laughter when playing and screaming when annoyed. Can understand familiar objects and has an expectation of what they will do. Chatters away tunefully and uses voice to attract attention. Watches the actions of those around them with interest. | | Early years1 – 3 years| Will learn 2 or 3 words that will be repeated constantly. Able to make the appropriate response to simple instructions. Goes through a trial and error process to discover what an object does. Can verbally communicate what they need. Is developing an inquiring mind about things and surroundings. Uses own personal jargon with many words unintelligible to most people. Knows the names for different parts of their body. Often repeats the last word spoken by any adult in earshot. Has a growing vocabulary of over 200 words and talks to themselves continuously. Joins 2 or 3 words together to make a sentence. Can use their own name with reference to themselves. Constantly asking questions, with infantile substitution, and can relate past events to the present. | | Childhood4 – 7 years| Speech becomes more confident as the substitutions decrease and full fluent speech is achieved. Can count up to twenty using repetition. Ask for the meaning of unfamiliar words. Questioning generally is at its height. Can draw a recognizable house and detailed people. Has a sense of time and can relate to the past, present and future. Able to write their own nameCan match colours and has an understanding of numbers. Reading skills will be developing in this stage and the child might write independently. | | Puberty8 – 12 years| Speech has now developed fully. Reading and writing skills are now being refined. Able to express thoughts and discuss learning making use of language skills. Shares ideas and opinions with peer group. Speech style or jargon is important to fit in with their group. Have a fairly rigid concept of right and wrong. | | Adolescence13 – 16 years| Will confide more with their peers than their parents. Increased use of speech reduces the amount of acting out. Have a good idea of their favorite sport and subjects and are well motivated in these areas. Fluctuates between considerable maturity and babyness. Can appear secretive at home, talkative but not very communicative. Has a stubborn unwillingness to compromise. | | Young Adult17 – 19 years| Thinking about choices to be made regarding further education or career choice. Emerging ability to make independent decisions and able to compromise. Begins to become more self-reliant. Conversation skills are well developed and uses prior knowledge gained. | Social, emotional and behavioural development | | 1. 1 c| Infant0 – 12 months| Creates an attachment bond with mother. Smiles at mother and may squeal with delight. Familiar routines elicit a positive response. Responds to different tones from mother. May become shy in the company of strangers and cling to a familiar adult. Can imitate hand clapping. Understands simple com mands and can wave goodbye. Will cooperate with adult dressing them. | | Early years1 – 3 years| Can demonstrate signs of affection. Will participate in nursery rhymes. Now should be able to help adult with dressing. Indicates when pants are soiled or wet. Becomes emotionally dependent on a familiar adult. Drinks from a cup with both hands. At the end of this stage will gain control of bowels. May throw a tantrum when frustrated. Able to play co-operatively and may have imaginary friends. Tries visibly hard to please. | | Childhood4 – 7 years| Child enjoys co-operative and dramatic play, taking turns. Understands the links between co-operation and competition. Can respond rationally to reasoning. Enjoys a degree of independence but still needs reassurance. Can become totally engrossed in activities. Can be concerned about being disliked. Fears develop about things under the bed or ghosts. Now able to form firm friendships. Fairly independent and confident. | | Puberty8 – 12 years| They will develop a select group of friends. Friendships become firm and more settled. They seek more independence in order to solve problems themselves. Need continued praise and encouragement. Increasingly concerned about what others think about them. Will be unsure about changes in their setting. | | Adolescence13 – 16 years| Body changes can upset self-esteem of children and make them quite vulnerable. As their bodies take on adult characteristics they still feel childlike inside. Will feel pressure from growing up and changing expectations. Some become more assured by changes in their environment. Peer pressure is a significant influence on them. Children want to spend more time with their friends than family. | | Young Adult17 – 19 years| As children enter adulthood they are still relatively inexperienced. The peer group losses importance and is replaced by a few close friends. Mature young adults will start to listen to their parents again, asking for advice. As a sense of identity emerges they are no longer afraid to seek counseling. One on one dating becomes important. May embark on a more intimate relationship with someone. | | Different aspects of development can affect one another | | 1. 2| Football| A child needs to be physically developed in order to play this game. They will use gross motor skills to run around and kick the ball. Hand-eye (feet-eye) coordination is also essential as the player needs to be spatially aware of where they are in relation to other things. It is no good have strong legs and great aim if you could not see where the ball was and make a connection. | | | It is not much fun playing this game in isolation. As a team game players need to have the social skills to share the ball by taking it in turns. They have to understand the cooperation factor which is vital in a competitive game. No one person can win a game on their own. | | | This game consists of rules that are available off the pitch, these may be discussed orally or read by individuals. Professional teams are supported and lively banter between children will have them routing for their side. With little instructions or intervention children can communicate with each other to organise themselves into teams and have a very good game. | Language| It is important that babies are spoken to regularly and exposed to a variety of rich language. The more they are talked to the more responsive they will be. The more that they hear, allows them to develop a larger and more varied vocabulary. Research shows that there is a link between early language and literacy skills. Increased reading and writing skills can be the foundation for academ ic and social success in the future. | | | | | ————————————————- Influences that affect children’s development Background | | 2. 1 a| Members of your family are the most important people in your child’s life. This includes siblings, aunts and uncles, cousins or even neighbours and good friends. If all is well in their world the chances are that it will be the same for your child. However things do happen that can have an effect on your child’s development and you may not realize it. If a family member becomes ill or dies this can be an emotionally upsetting time not just for the adults involved, but also for the children who have formed an attachment to them. Some less obvious influences may be the ‘expected’ birth of a sibling; the introduction of a new partner or having to move home or school. You should pay attention to any change in your child’s behaviour and check if their learning is being affected. | | Is your culture the same as the environment you are raising you child in? If not you should consider how these differences will affect your child. When English is not your first language it is helpful to your child if you encourage your child to develop this along side their mother tongue. It is important that children are able to speak, write and understand English so that they can have full access to the curriculum and make progress at the same rate as their peers. | Children are known to be a very expensive to raise and educate. Not all parents have the necessary funds to feed and cloth them adequately, let alone provide for extras. Poverty may be recognized by other children if a child does not have the latest fashion or electronic gadget at home. This may lead to a child being excluded from certain playground groups. It has been reported that children from d eprived circumstances do not usually do well aat school as this impacts on most areas of their development. | | Health | | 2. 1 b| Ill health of a mother or baby immediately after birth can have a profound effect on a child. It is in this very early stage of life that infants need the care of a constant caregiver. Any interruption to this process stops the child’s normal attachment progression. This could then result in a child struggling to form close relationships later in life. A child may be unwell occasionally and need to stay off from school for a few days. There will be cause for concern if this becomes a regular pattern. Any child who misses out on school restricts their developmental opportunities. A child who has a physical impairment is understandably restricted in certain areas, such as ovement in the playground and the social interactions that come with play. Support from adults around them is essential to help ensure they are included wherever possible. | | Growth and weight are primary indicators that are used by professionals to monitor the progress and well being of children. Children of the same age are often different shapes and sizes and there are a number of indicators that ca n explain this. For example boys are often bigger than girl, genetics may be responsible for a boy having a short stature and slight frame, or a poor diet may be responsible for a child being overweight. In all these cases reference to a growth chart may provide answers or explanation for their current development position. A pattern emerges over time for each child and cause for alarm would be if there was a sudden or sharp deviation from the normal pattern. The route for a child who was born prematurely will initially be on a lower path than that of a full term baby however it would be expected to ‘catch up’ over time. Even if this was not the case as long as the child was meeting other development goals this would not be an issue in isolation. | | | | | Environment | | 2. 1 c| Where children live has a marked effect on their social and emotional development. Children that live in a nice, clean, graffiti free, residential area are likely to grow up stress free. They will probably live in a single family residence, in a natural setting, with room to run and exercise their gross motor skills. It is likely that they will know their neighbours giving them opportunities for extended social interactions. High rise dwellings; noise and traffic pollution; overcrowding and access to services, all contribute to levels of psychological distress for many children. This manifests itself indirectly as poor interactions with parents and teachers which culminate in poor language and learning development. | | Children are routinely exposed to noise from cars, airplanes, music and other people. It is essential for children to be able to hear properly in order to learn how to read. However, when they are constantly bombarded with acute noise levels they begin to ignore all auditory input. This defense mechanism has been documented by researchers who recorded significantly reduced reading and speech ability. Children’s cognitive development is also compromised by noise pollution as adults and teachers around them struggle to be heard. Teachers can become annoyed, fatigued and impatient in a loud environment. Their teaching style can become compromised as they lose valuable time dealing with distractions. This indirectly deals another blow to the child chances of developing | | Crowding is another factor that has been noted as having a marked effect on children’s development. This phenomenon can affect the only child as well as those from large families. It comes about when a child is placed in an overcrowded situation over which they feel they have no control. Children may withdraw into themselves as a coping strategy. This may occur in a children’s activity area and result in less constructive and interactive play. Language development can be affect as parents speak less to children in crowded situations. There is also a tendency to speak in simple terms, thereby depriving them of the opportunity to hear and learn more complicated words. | | Importance of recognising and responding to concerns | | 2. | As parents you are in the best position to observe and monitor how your child is developing. Conversely when you feel that there is something wrong you should trust your instincts and don’t be afraid to discuss them with your doctor or health care professional. You might notice that your child never makes eye contact with you; perhaps they fail to respond to your voice; or they display sudden and severe mood changes sev eral times throughout the day. Instead of speculating what might be the problem might be on your own, a proper diagnosis is best. Early intervention will identify any problem and work towards solutions can start straight away if necessary. | | If you recognise that there are external issues affecting your child you should respond to them appropriately. As a parent or carer you could share your concerns with your child’s teacher. This will allow them to be alert to the child’s behaviour and they may be able to monitor their progress more closely for a time. It is also important to disclose changes in the family environment, such as a family break up with changes to living arrangements. As I have already said these may well have an effect on the child that the teacher can be forewarned to deal with. | | In some schools you may have direct access to the Special Education Needs Coordinator or the child can be referred to them via the teacher. It is always a good idea to find out from the school who these people are and what is the procedure to get access to them. If you have this information available before you need it you will be able to act quickly and correctly when concerns arise. | | ————————————————- Transitional stages Experienced by most children| | 3. 1| Being bornMilk to solidsCrawling to walkingBeing fed to feeding themselvesNappies to potty trainedUnaware to aware of selfHome to nursery| Nursery to Primary SchoolPrimary School to Senior SchoolPubertySexual awarenessChanging friendshipsHandling financesGetting a job * | | * Puberty * * You will need to watch out for Puberty, or adolescence as it is sometimes called. This is the natural transition that your child will go through on the way to becoming an adult. Aside from the growth spurt that occurs at this time for both sexes, girls will have their first period, and boys experience their first ‘wet dream’ (nighttime emission) and voice breaking etc. Less physical changes are the physiological, behavioural and relationships. The enormity of these changes may be overwhelming for a child who feels that there is something actually wrong with them but they are too afraid to ask anyone. The stress adolescents feel during these times of change can lead them to try drink or drugs as a coping strategy. Others may experiment with substance abuse or engage in risky sexual behaviour. There are various consequences that can come about from this behaviour such as contracting sexually transmitted diseases; teenage pregnancy or even death from addiction overdose or suicide * | | * These scenarios have been well studied and documented, they are included here not to alarm but to make you aware and equip you with pointers that will help you recognise situations that can be emotionally tough for your child. Stay involved with your child during these transitions and encourage them to talk to you about anything and everything, listen to them without judgment. Does your child feel neglected? Set aside some special time with them to show your interest and this will give you an opportunity to pick up on problems or changes in their behaviour. Prompt your child to talk about their experience or knowledge of different substances and the abuse of them. You have every right to know who your child is friends with and keep track of their movements. Again research has shown that children whose activities are not monitored by their parents are 4 times more likely to use drugs. Any observation of changes or disturbing behaviour should alert you to seek the help of professionals at an early stage. | | Experienced by some children | | 3. 2| A new siblingDomestic violenceBullyingEmotional abuseParents separating/divorcingSerious illness (child/parent)Family member diesUnexpected change of schoolMoving house| Physical/sexual abuseSeparation from familyParent(s) in prisonLooked after by local authorityMarriage (consensual/forced)Learn to driveGoing to universityChange group of friendsCo ming out as gay or lesbian| | * Going to University * * You might think this is great for you and your child. You have encouraged and supported them for years. They have studied hard and beat off stiff competition for a place at the university of their choice. Nevertheless, their departure is a significant milestone for the family as it ushers in a new transition and time of separation that everyone will have to get used to. Unless the family is quite wealthy the stress of financing higher education can have a negative impact on all. The adjustment for students away from home for the first time can have an effect on their mental health. The ‘empty nest’ left behind may give you as parents a feeling of loss as you relinquish some of your parental control. * The impact of university on students gives them a newfound sense of freedom as they are off the radar in terms of parental restrictions and rules. However, they will be confronted by new and different pressures as they take control of their lives. They now have to learn to live with a new ‘family’ and learn how they are now to behave with this new group of people . The opportunity for study is obviously available but so is the list of other things to do and places to go. It can be a time of sensory overload as course work and parties vie for attention. As a parent you should encourage your child to explore new interests, meet new people and discover their new surroundings, with the proviso that getting an education should be the foremost concern. Encourage them to seek out professors or other adults who can keep them focused and grounded. Ensure they know where to turn for help if they do encounter problems whether they are academic or emotional. * * In the midst of students finding their independence and doing fine – you may be in receipt of a tearful phone call. You may try to advise from a distance but this is not always possible. Work out ways to stay connected and involved by doing little things to remind them they are in your thoughts. Sending cards or notes with pictures of events they have missed can help to let them know they are loved and it is not a case of ‘out of sight out of mind’. * | | Affect of transitions on children’s behaviour and development | | 3. 3| At some time children will have to leave the comfort of their home and move on to some form of semi formal or formal education. This might initially be at a playgroup, nursery or reception class. Whichever route they take it is a time of major change for them and the way they handle it should be monitored closely. Children who have been used to one on one attention may struggle with having to share the teacher with the rest of their classmates. However those who have had a secure and happy upbringing will be emotionally mature enough to cope with the change. Children of a more delicate nature may regress in their behaviour and need reassurance to participate. They may suck their thumb for comfort or cling to a favorite toy or object. Sensitive handling of these actions will help them through and build up confidence to a point where learning is not hindered. | | Children who are looked after have been prematurely separated from parents. If this takes place in the formative years it is likely that they will have attachment issues. When this happens a child can become emotionally stuck at the age they were when the separation took place. This can then have a detrimental affect on how they view making attachments with others who are tasked with looking after them. The defense mechanism is now set to I will act up and refuse to engage with you just in case you up and leave me too. Every effort must be made to engage these special children and help them overcome their disadvantaged circumstances. Universities are well aware of the problems faced by students, especially in the first year, and have systems in place to deal with these transitions. | | ———————————————— References If you wish to do some more research or reading on the subject here are some of the books and websites I found useful when writing this booklet. Supporting teaching and learning in schools: Louise Burnham & Brenda Baker, 2010 6 to 16 Child Development: Penny Tassoni, 2007 The effects of the Physical Environment on Children’s Develo pment: Dr Gary Evans http://www. parenting. cit. cornell. edu/documents/Physical-Environment-Evans. pdf www. nhs. co. uk www. pampers. co. uk

Ed Boehm Essay

Edward Marshall Boehm Inc. Case Study The Edward Marshall Boehm case talks about a company whose main objective is to produce the highest possible quality porcelain products while keeping a focus to nature. The following report will include the company’s vision and mission statement, their main objectives, a SWOT analysis and their specific plans in great detail. Edward Marshall Boehm’s vision for the company is â€Å"to capture that special moment and setting which conveys the character, charm and loveliness of a bird or animal in its natural habitat† with his highest possible quality porcelain products. His mission is similar to his vision statement in that he wants to make the world aware and protective of endangered wildlife by making them aware of nature’s charm. As stated in the introduction, the main objective is to make the highest objective porcelain products focused on nature. Other main objectives include trying to establish the company to stay profitable for the long run. The company is particularly focused on making their quality products with the purpose of raising awareness and raising a profit, rather than mass producing for quantity. With these objectives, they believe it will put them where they want to be in the long run. After reviewing the case we have completed a SWOT analysis to get a better idea of where they are headed. The company’s strengths are numerous and promise success. They use a very high quality porcelain clay equal to the finest in the world and have the skill to make many different beautiful figurines. Mr. Boehm is not only extremely artistically talented but also has unlimited knowledge about the art market. He also leads promotion for the company and possesses great merchandising skills. Mr. Boehm could be named as a strength himself. The porcelain figures are becoming increasingly recognized as unique, and irreplaceable as well as many becoming collector’s items; the most intricate have been priced at over $20,000. The weaknesses are less numerous than the strengths but are still existent. First, the figure making process is complex, including 52 steps. This makes it extremely hard when orders become numerous and they start to get backordered, it is hard to catch up because Mr. Boehm is the only artist. Considering at the time this case was written Boehm was 55 years old, it may be hard to view the long-term vision for the company because he may not be around to always be able to create the same quality products he once was able to produce. There is also the expense of creating the products, and the travels Mr. Boehm makes in order to bring back live models of his birds. The company may look at several opportunities in order to improve their company. First, they should consider expanding into international markets; doing this could get their name out there and attract more customers. Mr. Boehm should look into teaching other people how to make the same high quality figures so they are able to create more products efficiently and have less backorders. Finally they should look into selling their porcelain clay to other businesses in order to make more money. We feel that this company faces many threats. As mentioned before Mr. Boehm’s age could potentially be a threat for the businesses. The fact that they have backorders may start to frustrate the customers and cause them to stop ordering from the company because the wait isn’t worth it. A rise in the cost of materials to make the figures may cause him to raise the cost of selling them which will in turn cause the loss of customers. New competitors could always be a threat and they may find a more efficient way to get the figures to customers quickly without backorders. We have a few specific plans that will help this company continue to thrive in the future. The most important thing to do is for Mr. Boehm to train other people in his craft. This is crucial if the company is to plan for long term. Another plan is to hire more than one company to distribute the product. Right now they only have one distributor, Milton China. With more distributors he could reach a larger market. The final plan we came up with is to work on technological advancements to make the long tedious process of making the figures quicker. The largest problem of the company is that it has so many backorders, with technology they could possibly speed up the process and narrow down the amount of backorders. We feel with our analysis that Edward Marshall Boehm Inc. is in good position for the future but they could make vast improvements if they capitalize on their opportunities and focus on the specific plans we provided.